Lecture 1 Dr. Jabar Etaby
OTHER INTESTINAL PROTOZOA
Classification
Higher order taxa
Domain : Eukaryota, Phylum :
Ciliophora, Class : Litostomatea,
Order : Vestibuliferida, Family :
Balantiididae, Genus : Balantidum,
Species : B. Coli
Species
Blanatidium coli and Cryptosporidium
(parvum) are both zoonotic protozoan
intestinal infections with some health
significance. Isospora belli is an
opportunistic Parasites
.
Causal Agent:
Balantidium coli, a large
ciliated protozoan parasite
lio
Transmission
Cysts are the parasite stage
responsible for transmission of
balantidiasis . The host most
often acquires the cyst through
ingestion of contaminated food
or water . Following ingestion
, excystation occurs in the
small intestine, and the
trophozoites colonize the
large intestine .
The trophozoites reside in
the lumen of the large
intestine of humans and
animals, where they
replicate by binary fission,
during which conjugation
may occur . Trophozoites
undergo encystation to
produce infective cysts
Some trophozoites invade
the wall of the colon and
multiply. Some return to
the lumen and
disintegrate. Mature cysts
are passed with feces .
Geographic Distribution
:
Worldwide. Because pigs are
an animal reservoir, human
infections occur more
frequently in areas where pigs
are raised. Other potential
animal reservoirs include
rodents and nonhuman
primates.
Epidemiology
B. coli: This is a parasite primarily of cows,
pigs and horses. The organism is a large
(100x60 µ) ciliate with a macro and a
micronucleus .The infection occurs
primarily in farm workers and other rural
dwellers by ingestion of cysts in fecal
material of farm animals.
. Man to man transmission is rare but
possible. Symptoms
and pathogenesis of balantidiasis are
similar to those seen in entamebiasis,
including intestinal epithelial erosion.
However, liver, lung and brain
abscesses are
not seen. Metronidazole and iodoquinol
are effective
A
Balantidium coli trophozoites. These
are characterized by: their large size
40 µm to more than 70 µm) the
presence of cilia on the cell surface –
particularly visible in (B) a cytostome
(arrows) a bean shaped
macronucleus which is often visible - see (A), and a
smaller, less conspicuous micronucleus
CDC
Balantidium coli trophozoites in section of intestine (H&E)
Balantidium coli trophozoites in section of intestine (H&E)
, Queensland University of
Technology
, Queensland University of Technology clinical
]
1
[
Balantidium coli trophozoites. These
are characterized by: their large size 40
µm to more than 70 µm) the
presence of cilia on the cell surface –
particularly visible in (B) a cytostome
(arrows) a bean shaped
macronucleus which is often visible -
see (A), and a smaller, less conspicuous
micronucleus CDC
Balantidium coli is a parasite of many
species of animals, including pigs, rats,
guinea pigs, humans, and many other
animals. It appears that the parasite can
be transmitted readily among these
species, providing the appropriate
conditions are met (i.e., fecal
contamination
Humans are infected when they
ingest cysts via food or water
contaminated with fecal material.
In many respects this parasite
resembles
Entamoeba histolytica
an important difference that can
have a significant impact of
epidemiology is that trophozoites
of B. coli will encyst after being
passed in stools, trophs of
E.histolytica will not
. In humans this parasitic species
resides most often in the large
intestine, and it can invade the
mucosa (or invade lesions caused
by other organisms) causing serious
pathology
Ectopic (extra-intestinal) infections
can also occur. You can view a
diagram of the life cycle
here
.
trophozoite
Giardia lamblia
Epidemiology: It has worldwide
distribution and is not uncommon in South
Carolina. It is the most frequent protozoan
intestinal disease in the US and the most
common
identified cause of water-borne disease
associated with breakdown of water
purification systems, outdoorsman ship,
travel to endemic areas (Russia, India,
Rocky Mountains, etc.) and day care
centers.
Morphology:
Trophozoite: It is12-15 µ, half pear
shaped with 8 flagella and, 2 axostyles
arranged
in a bilateral symmetry. There are two
anteriorly located large suction discs.
The
cytoplasm contains two 2 nuclei and
two parabasal bodies (Figure 1).
Cyst: Giardia cysts are 9-12 µ
ellipsoidal body with smooth well-
defined wall. The cytoplasm contains 4
nuclei and many structures of the
trophozoite.
Life cycle : Infection occurs by ingestion of
cysts, usually in contaminated
water. Decystation occurs in duodenum
and trophozoites (trophs) colonize the
upper small intestine where they may
swim freely or attach to the sub-mucosal
epithelium via the ventral suction disc.
The free trophozoites encyst as they
move
down stream and mitosis takes place
during the encystment.
The cysts are passed
in the stool. Man is the primary host
although beavers, pigs and monkeys
are also
infected and serve as reservoirs.
Life cycle of Giadia lamblia. Infection occurs
by the ingestion of cysts in contaminated
water or food. In the small intestine,
excystation releases trophozoites that
multiply by longitudinal binary fission. The
trophozoites remain in the lumen of the
proximal small bowel where they can be
Free or attached to the mucosa by a ventral
sucking disk.
Symptoms: The early symptoms
include flatulence, abdominal distension,
nausea
and foul-smelling bulky, explosive, often
watery, diarrhea. The stool contains
excessive lipids but very rarely any
blood or necrotic tissue
The more chronic stage
is associated with vitamin B
12
malabsorption, disaccharidase
deficiency and lactose
intolerance.
Pathogenesis
The mechanisms by which Giardia
causes diarrhea and malabsorption
have not been elucidated. There is
no evidence that Giardia produces
an enterotoxin or that it invades the
intestinal epithelial cells.
. Electron microscopy shows that
the ventral disk embeds the
parasite into the epithelial
microvillus layer and “footprints”
of formerly adherent trophozoites
are visible on the epithelial cell
surface
However, even in a heavy
infection, the surface area
covered and possibly damaged
by the adherent trophozoites
cannot account for the
symptoms.
In humans, biopsy of the infected
gut shows little abnormality. In a
European study in which over
500 biopsy specimens from
Giardia-infected patients were
observed,
slightly over 96% had normal
looking mucosa and 3.7% had
mild villous shortening with a
ismall amount of neutrophil and
lymphocyte
infiltration.
The lack of histologic
abnormalities in the majority of
symptomatic patients has also
been observed in other, smaller
studies.
In one study in which patients
with villous shortening and
inflammatory infiltration were
followed with serial biopsies,
these
abnormalities all resolved after
the infection was eradicated.
In the murine models of giardiasis,
similar findings of villous atrophy
and inflammatory infiltration of
villous epithelium can be observed.
However as with humans, the
findings are subtle and
theinflammatory changes mild.
Giardiasis
7
In conclusion, the cause of
diarrhea and malabsorption in
Giardia infection is likely to be
multifactorial, involving the host
immune response to the pathogen
as well as, yet to be identified,
cytopathic substances that the
parasite may secrete.
Additionally, it has been suggested
that Giardia may cause pathology by
alteration of the bile content or
endogenous flora of the small
intestine which in turn could affect
the absorptive function of gut. These
hypotheses must now be formally
tested before a more complete
picture emerges.
Diagnosis
The traditional method of
diagnosis is examination of
stool for trophozoites or cysts
(stool O&P). Both fresh and
fixed stool specimens are
usually examined
Cysts are normally found but
motile trophozoites can be
observed in a fresh specimen of
loose stool . Because the
parasites are normally found in the
small intestine and are shed
intermittently, the sensitivity of one
stool specimen is low, in the range
of 50 - 70%.
However, examination of three
specimens, from three different
days, increases the sensitivity to
85 - 90%; specificity is close to
100%.
This assay remains the most
widely used method to diagnose
Giardia infection and is the gold
standard to which other newer
assays are usually compared.
It is important to note that there can
be a delay between the onset of
symptoms and the excretion of
cysts so that a negative stool
sample in someone in whom
giardiasis is suspected warrants
reanalysis at alater time.
Encystation occurs when the parasites
transit toward the
colon, and cysts are he stage found in
normal (non diarrheal)
feces. The cysts are hardy, can survive
several months in cold
water, and are responsible or transmission
Recently, new assays have been
developed based on detection of
Giardia antigens. The direct
fluorescent antibody test (DFA),
uses a Giardia-specifi c antibody
conjugated to a fluorophore to stain
stool specimens. Because the
parasites are labeled, much larger
regions of the slide can be scanned
more quickly and the likelihood of
detecting the parasite is increased.
. On a single stool specimen the
sensitivity is between 96 -
100%. Other antigen-detection
tests detect soluble Giardia-
specifi c proteins in the stool.
There are two different types of
soluble-antigen-detection
Covering of the epithelium by the
trophozoite and flattening of the
mucosal surface
results in malabsorption of nutrients.
Immunology:
Some role for IgA and IgM. Increased
incidence in immunodeficiency (e.g.
AIDS).
Diagnosis:
Symptoms, history, epidemiology. Distinct
from other dysentery due to lack of
mucus, and blood in the stool, lack of
increased PMN leukocytes in the stool and
lack of high fever. Cysts in the stool and
trophs in duodenal content
obtained using a string device.
(Enterotest
R
). Trophs must be distinguished
from the
nonpathogenic flagellate Trichomona
hominis, an asymmetrical flagellate with an
undulating membrane
Because the cysts
are infectious when passed in the stool
or shortly afterward,
person-to-person transmission is
possible. While animals are
infected with Giardia, their importance as
a reservoir is unclear.
fig.(1)
Cysts of Giardialamblia,stained with iron-
hematoxylin (A, B) and in a wet mount (C; from a
patient seen in Haiti). Size: 8-12 µm in length.
These cysts have two nuclei each (more mature
ones will have four). CDC
Giardia lamblia cyst. Chlorazol black. CDC/Dr.
George R. Healy
Giardia lamblia cyst. Iodine stain. CDC
Giardia lamblia. Indirect fluorescent antibody
stain. Positive test.
CDC/Dr. Govinda S. Visvesvara gsv1@cdc.gov
Giardia trophozoites in section of intestine
(H&E) ©
, Queensland
University of Technology clinical parasitology
collection. Used with permission
Giardia lamblia. Indirect fluorescent antibody
stain. Negative test.
CDC/Dr. Govinda S. Visvesvara gsv1@cdc.gov
Protozoa Infection in Human Intestine sp. (Giardia) sp. ©
l, University of Hawaii.
Used with permission
Figure 1
